Which Is Likely To Be Learned Through Operant Conditioning?

Type of associative learning procedure

Operant conditioning (also called instrumental workout) is a type of associative learning process through which the forcefulness of a beliefs is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is as well a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.

Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled past ecology stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, behavior is controlled past external stimuli. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or learn to avert touching a hot stove; in operant terms, the box and the stove are "discriminative stimuli". Operant behavior is said to be "voluntary". The responses are under the control of the organism and are operants. For instance, the child may face a choice between opening the box and petting a puppy.

In contrast, classical workout involves involuntary behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically significant events. The responses are under the control of some stimulus because they are reflexes, automatically elicited by the appropriate stimuli. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may betoken an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are non operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences, and they are not voluntarily "chosen".

However, both kinds of learning can affect behavior. Classically conditioned stimuli—for example, a picture of sweets on a box—might enhance operant conditioning by encouraging a child to approach and open the box. Inquiry has shown this to be a benign phenomenon in cases where operant behavior is error-prone.^[1]

The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated past the analysis of these 2 sorts of learning,^[two] and they are still at the core of behavior analysis. They take also been applied to the written report of social psychology, helping to clarify certain phenomena such every bit the simulated consensus issue.^[1]

Operant conditioning

Extinction

Reinforcement Increase behavior

Punishment Decrease behavior

Positive reinforcement Add appetitive stimulus following correct beliefs

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment Add noxious stimulus following behavior

Negative penalty Remove appetitive stimulus following beliefs

Escape Remove noxious stimulus following correct behavior

Active avoidance Behavior avoids noxious stimulus

Historical note [edit]

Thorndike'south law of event [edit]

Operant conditioning, sometimes chosen instrumental learning, was starting time extensively studied past Edward 50. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from dwelling house-made puzzle boxes.^[three] A cat could escape from the box past a elementary response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, simply when first constrained, the cats took a long time to become out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less oft and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly.^[3] Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed past satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In brusque, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken beliefs. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animate being learning curves through this process.^[4]

Humans appear to learn many uncomplicated behaviors through the sort of procedure studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they pb to a successful upshot and discarded when they exercise not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "instructor", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in instruction their children for thousands of years.^[5]

B. F. Skinner [edit]

B.F. Skinner at the Harvard Psychology Department, circa 1950

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is referred to as the Father of operant workout, and his piece of work is oft cited in connectedness with this topic. His 1938 book "The Beliefs of Organisms: An Experimental Assay",^[6] initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and brute behavior. Post-obit the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on appreciable behavior and its equally observable consequences.^[7]

Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to depict something as complex as human beliefs. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described homo behavior as it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior.

To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning sleeping room, or "Skinner Box", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this organization immune the discipline to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's chief behavioral measure.^[8] Some other invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the master data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules.^[ix] A reinforcement schedule may be defined equally "whatsoever procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-divers dominion".^[10] The effects of schedules became, in turn, the bones findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant workout. He as well drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.^[11]

Many of Skinner'southward writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human being behavior.^[12] In 1948 he published Walden 2, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive customs organized around his conditioning principles.^[13] In 1957, Skinner published Exact Behavior,^[14] which extended the principles of operant workout to language, a form of human being behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like whatsoever other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's audience.

Concepts and procedures [edit]

Origins of operant behavior: operant variability [edit]

Operant behavior is said to exist "emitted"; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus 1 may ask why it happens in the offset place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a "new" bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the beliefs of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that atomic number 82 to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of sure variables.^[15]

Modifying operant behavior: reinforcement and punishment [edit]

Reinforcement and punishment are the cadre tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative.

• Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while positive punishment and negative penalty reduce the probability of behavior that they follow.

Some other procedure is called "extinction".

• Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less likely. Occasional reinforcement tin lead to an even longer delay earlier beliefs extinction due to the learning factor of repeated instances becoming necessary to go reinforcement, when compared with reinforcement being given at each opportunity earlier extinction.^[sixteen]

There are a total of five consequences.

1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed past another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior.^[17] For example, if a rat in a Skinner box gets nutrient when it presses a lever, its charge per unit of pressing volition go upward. This procedure is usually called only reinforcement.
2. Negative reinforcement (a.k.a. escape) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed past the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing the original beliefs'southward frequency. In the Skinner Box experiment, the aversive stimulus might exist a loud noise continuously within the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever to turn off the dissonance.
3. Positive punishment (besides referred to as "punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed past an aversive stimulus. Case: pain from a spanking, which would often result in a decrease in that behavior. Positive punishment is a disruptive term, so the procedure is unremarkably referred to as "punishment".
4. Negative penalization (penalty) (too chosen "punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus. Example: taking away a child's toy post-obit an undesired behavior by him/her, which would result in a decrease in the undesirable behavior.
5. Extinction occurs when a beliefs (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. Example: a rat is starting time given food many times for pressing a lever, until the experimenter no longer gives out food as a reward. The rat would typically press the lever less often then finish. The lever pressing would and so be said to be "extinguished."

Information technology is important to notation that actors (due east.chiliad. a rat) are not spoken of as existence reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally-occurring consequences tin can as well reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered on purpose.

Schedules of reinforcement [edit]

Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the fourth dimension that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, just the post-obit are the virtually basic and commonly used^{[18] [ix]}

• Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response afterward a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields a "interruption-run" pattern of response; that is, after training on this schedule, the organism typically pauses subsequently reinforcement, and and so begins to reply rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.
• Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the start response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a relatively steady rate of response that varies with the average fourth dimension betwixt reinforcements.
• Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs later on a fixed number of responses accept been emitted since the previous reinforcement. An organism trained on this schedule typically pauses for a while after a reinforcement and and so responds at a high rate. If the response requirement is low there may be no suspension; if the response requirement is high the organism may quit responding birthday.
• Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a very loftier, persistent rate of response.
• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs subsequently each response. Organisms typically reply every bit rapidly every bit they tin, given the time taken to obtain and consume reinforcement, until they are satiated.

Factors that change the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment [edit]

The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment tin can be changed.

1. Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a positive or "appetitive" stimulus will be reduced if the individual has received enough of that stimulus to satisfy his/her ambition. The opposite effect will occur if the private becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence volition then increase. A subject with a full stomach wouldn't feel as motivated as a hungry one.^[19]
2. Immediacy: An firsthand consequence is more effective than a delayed i. If 1 gives a dog a treat for sitting within five seconds, the canis familiaris will acquire faster than if the treat is given after thirty seconds.^[20]
3. Contingency: To exist most effective, reinforcement should occur consistently after responses and not at other times. Learning may exist slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, post-obit only some instances of the same response. Responses reinforced intermittently are unremarkably slower to extinguish than are responses that have ever been reinforced.^[19]
4. Size: The size, or amount, of a stimulus often affects its authority as a reinforcer. Humans and animals engage in cost-benefit analysis. If a lever press brings ten food pellets, lever pressing may be learned more than rapidly than if a press brings only 1 pellet. A pile of quarters from a slot machine may go along a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter.

Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of carbohydrate, for example, the gustatory modality of sugar is an effective reinforcer. When the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the gustation of saccharide becomes less effective or even aversive.

Shaping [edit]

Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in educational activity nonverbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target") beliefs. Adjacent, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animate being or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually inverse across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more than and more than closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the employ of a schedule of reinforcement.

Noncontingent reinforcement [edit]

Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism'south behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an try to reduce an undesired target beliefs past reinforcing multiple culling responses while extinguishing the target response.^[21] As no measured behavior is identified every bit being strengthened, at that place is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".^[22]

Stimulus command of operant behavior [edit]

Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant workout operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when beliefs is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli." A and so-called "iii-term contingency" is the outcome. That is, discriminative stimuli set up the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Instance: a rat may exist trained to printing a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of his/her food bag; a child reaches for processed when s/he sees it on a table.

Discrimination, generalization & context [edit]

Virtually behavior is nether stimulus command. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:

• Discrimination typically occurs when a response is reinforced simply in the presence of a specific stimulus. For instance, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a ruddy light and not at a light-green low-cal; in outcome, information technology pecks at red and stops pecking at greenish. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions have been studied; for case an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another.
• Generalization is the trend to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a dove might as well peck at "pink", though usually less strongly.
• Context refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. in a room, or the interior of an operant conditioning chamber. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context may exist absent-minded, or altered, in another. This may crusade difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur in other situations.

Behavioral sequences: conditioned reinforcement and chaining [edit]

Almost beliefs cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced ane by 1. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses leap together by the three-term contingencies defined in a higher place. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus non merely sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example, the lite that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise – plough-around – lite – press lever – food". Much longer bondage can exist congenital by adding more stimuli and responses.

Escape and avoidance [edit]

In escape learning, a beliefs terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding i'south eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of vivid light in ane's eyes. (This is an instance of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for case, putting on lord's day glasses earlier going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-chosen "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of abstention (see below).

Two kinds of experimental settings are usually used: discriminated and gratis-operant avoidance learning.

Discriminated abstention learning [edit]

A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a serial of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a stupor. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such every bit a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials, the bailiwick does not brand the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early on trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning considering a neutral CS (conditioned stimulus) is paired with the aversive U.s.a. (unconditioned stimulus); this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below.

Gratis-operant abstention learning [edit]

In complimentary-operant avoidance a subject area periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electrical stupor) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this state of affairs, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial fourth dimension intervals decide the rate of abstention learning. This get-go is the S-S (daze-shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-South (response-daze) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Notation that each time the subject area performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins afresh.

Two-process theory of avoidance [edit]

This theory was originally proposed in club to explain discriminated abstention learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical workout of the indicate followed by operant conditioning of the escape response:

a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS with an aversive Us. The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the U.s., the CS comes to arm-twist a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – "fear." b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a effect of the starting time process, the CS at present signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does non say that the organism "avoids" the U.s.a. in the sense of anticipating it, simply rather that the organism "escapes" an aversive internal land that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two-factor theory. For example, avoidance beliefs ofttimes extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS-U.s. pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avert oftentimes evidence little evidence of fright, suggesting that escape from fright is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.^[23]

Operant or "one-factor" theory [edit]

Some theorists suggest that avoidance beliefs may only be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the thought of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the outcome of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cerebral theories of avoidance accept this thought a pace farther. For example, a rat comes to "await" shock if it fails to printing a lever and to "expect no shock" if it presses it, and abstention beliefs is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed.^[23]

Operant hoarding [edit]

Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may let food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute flow of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could exist consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. Run into schedules of reinforcement.^[24]

Neurobiological correlates [edit]

The beginning scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in means that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong^{[25] [26]} and past R.T. Richardson.^[26] They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated before long after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and accept been shown to exist related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions.^[27] Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.^[28] Dopamine pathways project much more than densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dumbo even in the posterior cortical regions like the main visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson'south illness, a status attributed to the insufficient activeness of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.^[29] It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to exist the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.

A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the encephalon are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a global reinforcement betoken to postsynaptic neurons."^[30] This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the nearly likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to human action upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.

Questions virtually the law of effect [edit]

A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined in a higher place. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking"), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed past reinforcement, and in event the animal begins to answer to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon bailiwick begins to peck the key even though nutrient comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats brainstorm to handle modest objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby.^{[31] [32]} Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this beliefs even when pecking the central or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission grooming).^{[33] [34]} Another apparent operant behavior that appears without reinforcement is contrafreeloading.

These observations and others appear to contradict the police of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.k.^{[35] [36] [37]}) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping process has, in fact, go i of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors tin can exist influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenter's task is to work out how these interact.^[38]

Applications [edit]

Reinforcement and penalization are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a nifty many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. The following are some examples.

Addiction and dependence [edit]

Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the evolution and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, information technology functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The encephalon's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., information technology is "wanted" or "desired"),^{[39] [40] [41]} and then as an habit develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – get associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug.^{[39] [xl] [41]} These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they tin go conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use.^{[39] [40] [41]} Thus, if an addicted private encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia equally an attempt to testify the dangers of drug use. Nonetheless, such posters are no longer used considering of the furnishings of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (east.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and feet) that ascend during the land of drug withdrawal.^[39]

Animal training [edit]

Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant workout long earlier these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this commodity, a few of the nearly salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.thousand. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the employ of secondary reinforcement, (eastward.g. sounding a clicker immediately subsequently a desired response, and then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (east.chiliad. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to leap higher and college; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex beliefs is gradually synthetic from smaller units.^[42]

Example of animal training from Seaworld related on Operant conditioning ^[43]

Animal grooming has effects on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcements may play a large part on the animal training case.

Applied behavior assay [edit]

Practical behavior analysis is the subject field initiated by B. F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially meaning human being behavior. It uses the bones concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (South^C), discriminative stimulus (Due south^d), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (S^rein or S^r for reinforcers, sometimes Due south^ave for aversive stimuli).^[23] A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such every bit emotional reactions. The other 3 terms combine to form Skinner's "three-term contingency": a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that pb to reinforcement. Researchers have constitute the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior:^{[ commendation needed ]}

1. State goal Analyze exactly what changes are to be brought nearly. For example, "reduce weight by 30 pounds."
2. Monitor behavior Continue track of behavior so that ane can see whether the desired effects are occurring. For example, proceed a chart of daily weights.
3. Reinforce desired behavior For example, congratulate the private on weight losses. With humans, a record of behavior may serve every bit a reinforcement. For example, when a participant sees a design of weight loss, this may reinforce continuance in a behavioral weight-loss program. Notwithstanding, individuals may perceive reinforcement which is intended to be positive as negative and vice versa. For example, a record of weight loss may act as negative reinforcement if it reminds the individual how heavy they actually are. The token economy, is an exchange organisation in which tokens are given as rewards for desired behaviors. Tokens may later exist exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such every bit power, prestige, goods or services.
4. Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior For instance, remove processed and fatty snacks from kitchen shelves.

Practitioners of applied beliefs analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and problems. In many cases, practitioners apply operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively practical in to such things equally early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD)^[44] enquiry on the principles influencing criminal behavior, HIV prevention,^[45] conservation of natural resources,^[46] instruction,^[47] gerontology,^[48] wellness and practise,^[49] industrial rubber,^[l] language conquering,^[51] littering,^[52] medical procedures,^[53] parenting,^[54] psychotherapy,^{[ commendation needed ]} seatbelt use,^[55] severe mental disorders,^[56] sports,^[57] substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals.^[58] Some of these applications are among those described below.

Kid behavior – parent direction training [edit]

Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents larn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such every bit praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such equally stickers or points towards a larger reward as function of an incentive system created collaboratively with the kid).^[59] In addition, parents acquire to select simple behaviors every bit an initial focus and reward each of the small-scale steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is chosen "successive approximations").^{[59] [lx]}

Economics [edit]

Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, every bit indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the caste to which toll influences consumption is called "the toll elasticity of demand." Certain bolt are more elastic than others; for instance, a change in toll of certain foods may have a large effect on the corporeality bought, while gasoline and other everyday consumables may exist less affected past cost changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.^[61]

Gambling – variable ratio scheduling [edit]

Every bit stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement later on the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling beliefs in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has ofttimes been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.^[62]

Military machine psychology [edit]

Homo beings have an innate resistance to killing and are reluctant to act in a direct, aggressive way towards members of their own species, even to save life. This resistance to killing has acquired infantry to exist remarkably inefficient throughout the history of military warfare.^[63]

This phenomenon was not understood until S.L.A. Marshall (Brigadier General and armed services historian) undertook interview studies of WWII infantry immediately following combat appointment. Marshall's well-known and controversial book, Men Against Fire, revealed that only fifteen% of soldiers fired their rifles with the purpose of killing in combat.^[64] Post-obit credence of Marshall'due south research by the US Army in 1946, the Human Resources Enquiry Part of the United states Army began implementing new training protocols which resemble operant conditioning methods. Subsequent applications of such methods increased the percent of soldiers able to kill to around 50% in Korea and over 90% in Vietnam.^[63] Revolutions in training included replacing traditional pop-upward firing ranges with 3-dimensional, human being-shaped, popular-up targets which collapsed when striking. This provided firsthand feedback and acted as positive reinforcement for a soldier'south behavior.^[65] Other improvements to military grooming methods have included the timed firing course; more than realistic grooming; high repetitions; praise from superiors; marksmanship rewards; and group recognition. Negative reinforcement includes peer accountability or the requirement to retake courses. Modernistic armed forces training conditions mid-brain response to gainsay pressure level by closely simulating actual combat, using mainly Pavlovian classical conditioning and Skinnerian operant conditioning (both forms of behaviorism).^[63]

Modern marksmanship training is such an excellent instance of behaviorism that it has been used for years in the introductory psychology course taught to all cadets at the United states of america War machine Academy at West Point equally a classic case of operant conditioning. In the 1980s, during a visit to West Bespeak, B.F. Skinner identified modernistic armed services marksmanship preparation as a near-perfect awarding of operant conditioning.^[65]

Lt. Col. Dave Grossman states about operant conditioning and Us Military training that:

It is entirely possible that no one intentionally saturday down to apply operant conditioning or behavior modification techniques to train soldiers in this area…But from the standpoint of a psychologist who is also a historian and a career soldier, information technology has get increasingly obvious to me that this is exactly what has been achieved.^[63]

Nudge theory [edit]

Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than directly educational activity, legislation, or enforcement.

Praise [edit]

The concept of praise equally a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a ways of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more than probable to occur by contingently praising said behavior.^[66] Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent utilise of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and bookish performance,^{[67] [68]} but likewise in the study of piece of work performance.^[69] Praise has besides been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised next individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement.^[70] Praise may be more or less effective in irresolute behavior depending on its form, content and commitment. In order for praise to effect positive beliefs change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered subsequently the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.^[71]

Acknowledging the consequence of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions take incorporated the use of praise in their protocols.^{[72] [73]} The strategic employ of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management^[72] and parenting training interventions,^[68] though praise is often subsumed in intervention enquiry into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

Several studies accept been done on the consequence cognitive-behavioral therapy and operant-behavioral therapy have on different medical weather. When patients developed cerebral and behavioral techniques that inverse their behaviors, attitudes, and emotions; their pain severity decreased. The results of these studies showed an influence of cognitions on pain perception and touch presented explained the general efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT) and Operant-Behavioral therapy (OBT).

Psychological manipulation [edit]

Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:^[74]

• Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approving, gifts, attention, facial expressions such every bit a forced express mirth or smile, and public recognition.
• Negative reinforcement: may involve removing ane from a negative situation
• Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an constructive climate of fear and doubtfulness. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in about forms of gambling, the gambler is probable to win now and again but all the same lose money overall.
• Penalization: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
• Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive acrimony, or other intimidating beliefs to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such beliefs tin condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.

Traumatic bonding [edit]

Traumatic bonding occurs as the consequence of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of advantage and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.^{[75] [76]}

The other source indicated that ^[77] 'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that i person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and fifty-fifty affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated past intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper paw, the victimizer manipulates the beliefs of the victim and limits the victim'due south options then every bit to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of say-so and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim'due south ability to receive countervailing cocky-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency...The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the damage of the victim's capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral amalgamation with someone who perpetrated ambitious acts, fifty-fifty if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression. '.

Video games [edit]

The majority^{[ citation needed ]} of video games are designed around a compulsion loop, calculation a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the thespian playing. This tin can lead to the pathology of video game addiction.^[78]

Equally office of a trend in the monetization of video games during the 2010s, some games offered loot boxes as rewards or every bit items purchasable by real world funds. Boxes contains a random selection of in-game items. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as information technology follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that boodle boxes are a form of gambling, the do is just classified as such in a few countries. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real earth money has created a peel gambling market that is under legal evaluation.^[79]

Workplace culture of fear [edit]

Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to every bit petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fright in the workplace.^[80] Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and dubiousness.^[74] When employees become the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.^[81]

Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, penalisation, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have likewise been applied to workplace operation.

One of the many reasons proposed for the dramatic costs associated with healthcare is the do of defensive medicine. Prabhu reviews the commodity by Cole and discusses how the responses of ii groups of neurosurgeons are classic operant beliefs. One group practice in a state with restrictions on medical lawsuits and the other group with no restrictions. The group of neurosurgeons were queried anonymously on their practice patterns. The physicians changed their practice in response to a negative feedback (fear from lawsuit) in the group that practiced in a state with no restrictions on medical lawsuits.^[82]

Run across also [edit]

• Abusive power and command
• Animal testing
• Behavioral contrast
• Behaviorism (branch of psychology referring to methodological and radical behaviorism)
• Behavior modification (quondam expression for ABA; modifies behavior either through consequences without incorporating stimulus control or involves the apply of flooding—likewise referred to every bit prolonged exposure therapy)
• Carrot and stick
• Child training
• Cognitivism (psychology) (theory of internal mechanisms without reference to behavior)
• Consumer need tests (animals)
• Educational psychology
• Educational technology
• Experimental analysis of beliefs (experimental research principles in operant and respondent conditioning)
• Exposure therapy (also called desensitization)
• Graduated exposure therapy (as well called systematic desensitization)
• Habituation
• Jerzy Konorski
• Learned industriousness
• Matching police
• Negative (positive) contrast issue
• Radical behaviorism (conceptual theory of behavior assay that expands behaviorism to also encompass private events (thoughts and feelings) as forms of beliefs)
• Reinforcement
• Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
• Preference tests (animals)
• Premack principle
• Sensitization
• Social conditioning
• Gild for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior
• Spontaneous recovery

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External links [edit]

Wait upward operant in Wiktionary, the gratuitous dictionary.

• Operant conditioning article in Scholarpedia
• Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
• Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Beliefs
• Negative reinforcement
• scienceofbehavior.com

Which Is Likely To Be Learned Through Operant Conditioning?,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning

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